Volume 2. Number 2. June 2001
Transcendent Philosophy
An International Journal for Comparative Philosophy and Mysticism
Muhsin Araki
The place of Mysticism (‘Irf¡n) within the hierarchy of Islamic SciencesSeyed ¯afav¢, SOAS, University of London
The Practice of Mysticism (‘irf¡n-i ‘amal¢) in IslamDr. Kar¢m Mujtahid¢, University of Tehran, Iran
Mull¡ ¯adr¡ in the Narrative of Henry CorbinHamid Hadji Haider
Majoritarianism and ConstitutionalismReza Akbarian, Tarbiat Modarres University, Iran
The Fundamental Principles of Ibn S¢n¡'s OntologyMu¦ammad Taq¢ Mi¥b¡¦-i Yazd¢
Two Critical Issues in Sadrian Philosophy: Substantive Motion and its Relation to the Problem of Time, and the Principality of ExistenceBook Reviews
Flusser, V.
The Shape of Things: A Philosophy of Design
Flusser, V.
Towards a Philosophy of Photography(Oliver Leaman)Yahya Christian Bonaud,
L’Imam Khomeyni, un gnostique méconnu du XXe siècle: Métaphysique et théologie dans les oeuvres philosophiques et spirituelles de l’Imam Khomeyni (Sajjad Rizvi)Hunsberger, A., Nasir Khusraw
The Ruby of Badakshan. A Portrait of the Persian Poet, Traveller and Philosopher (Oliver Leaman)Michael Cook
Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought (Sajjad Rizvi)Des Chene, D.
Spirits and Clocks: Machine and Organism in Descartes (Amy Mullin)Christian Jambet
Se rendre immortel suivi du Traité de la résurrection de Moll¡ ¯adr¡ Sh¢r¡z¢ (Sajjad Rizvi)Arnaldez, R.
Averroes, a Rationalist in Islam, trans. R. Sleight (Oliver Leaman)Goldziher
Ernest Renan als Orientalist, trans. P. Zalan (Oliver Leaman)Sachiko Murata
Chinese gleams of Sufi light: Wang Tai-yu’s Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih’s Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, with a new translation of J¡m¢’s Law¡’i¦ by William Chittick (Sajjad Rizvi)
Williams, J.
Denying Divinity: Apophasis in the Patristic Christian and Soto Zen Buddhist Traditions (Oliver Leaman)Wall, P.
Wittgenstein in Ireland (Oliver Leaman)
The place of Mysticism (‘Irf¡n) within the hierarchy of Islamic Sciences
Muhsin Araki, Islamic Centre of England, UK
Abstract
This brief paper presents and locates the study and discourse of mysticism (‘irf¡n) within the wider context of the disciplines and sciences studied and practised in Islam. After a brief introduction to the sciences in Islam and the definition of a science, the author focuses on the relationship between mysticism and philosophy and their different examinations of the notion and reality of existence.
To ascertain and define the correct location for the study of mysticism, we need to explain three contextual issues. First, what is meant by the term ‘Islamic sciences’? Second, what are the features that are similar and what distinguishes mysticism from other Islamic sciences and disciplines? Third, how has mysticism developed with respect to these other sciences and how do they affect each other?
I: A general definition of Islamic sciences.
Islamic sciences (‘ul£m isl¡miyya) is a concept used in two senses. (1) The first sense is broadly understood. Islamic sciences, taken in their broad sense, encompass a constellation of disciplines, which have evolved in the context of Islamic civilisation, both ones which primarily developed from Islamic sources and principles, and those which already existed in other societies and civilizations (‘ul£m al-aw¡’il) but which were integrated into, and flourished within Islamic civilisation. Islamic sciences in this broad sense embrace disciplines held in common among Islamic scholars in scientific and academic institutions in the Islamic world throughout the history of Islam. Consequently, both original Islamic sciences such as jurisprudence, theology, principles of jurisprudence, exegesis of the Qu’r¡n and the life (s¢ra) of the Prophet and Imams and other sciences derived from other civilisations such as astronomy, medicine, mathematics, all of which fit in this broad category.
The second sense is narrower. This narrow definition embraces those disciplines, which originate directly from Islamic principles and sources, namely, the Qur’¡n, the tradition (sunna) of the Prophet and Imams and the creed, which is derived from Qur’¡n. This category of sciences is an innovation of Muslims and is, in fact, an illustration and interpretation of the tradition of the Prophet. The narrow category of Islamic sciences itself is divided into two groups. The first comprises those developed for the sole purpose of interpretation and elaboration of the meaning and purposes of the Qur’¡n and the tradition of the Prophet. The second comprises those, which are considered an introduction to the former group, such as logic, Arabic literature and grammar, the history of Islam, sciences related to the understanding of Qur’¡n, the science of recitation of Qur’¡n and the science of verification of narrators of sayings of the Prophet and Imam (‘ilm al-rij¡l).
Islamic sciences are also divided into two categories on the basis of their methodology. They are either based on pure reasoning or derive their authority from religious sources. The first category, which is based on intellectual investigation, comprises the intellectual sciences (‘ul£m ‘aqliyya). The second comprises the sciences based upon scriptural authority and exegesis (‘ul£m naqliyya). In the sciences derived from scripture, the authority of scriptural sources is the main basis for arguments. However, the degree of rational reasoning in these sciences varies. Disciplines such as transcendental philosophy (falsafa il¡hiyya), theoretical mysticism, logic and rational theology (kal¡m ‘aql¢) employ only rational premises in their arguments. They clearly fall into the former category, while practical mysticism, scripturally-oriented theology, principles of jurisprudence (u¥£l al-fiqh) and the exegesis of the Qur’¡n are considered as scripturally-orientated sciences.
II: Similarities and differences between mysticism and other branches of Islamic sciences
Islamic sciences differ in their subject matter, purpose or methodology, or any of two or three of these factors. For example, theology is different from jurisprudence in terms of subject matter and purpose. The subject matter of theology is one’s religious attitude towards human beings and the world, whereas the subject matter of jurisprudence is human agency vis-à-vis God, other humans and the world. The purpose of theology is to attain peace of mind and certainty in an uncertain world, while jurisprudence deals with the conformity of our deeds in relation to the commands of God. On the other hand, unlike jurisprudence, rational theology follows a rational methodology and relies mainly only on ‘reason’ (‘aql), while scripturally-orientated theology shares the methodology of jurisprudence employing a combined methodology of scripturally-orientated argument and pure ‘reason’.
Islamic philosophy (metaphysics) and theology are also different in terms of subject matter and purpose. The subject matter of metaphysics is pure existence (al-wuj£d bim¡ huwa wuj£d), while the subject matter of theology is the existence of God (awareness of whose existence is essential). However, these two disciplines share the same methodology in achieving their objectives, which is pure reason. Our main aim here is to indicate the similarities and differences between Islamic mysticism and other disciplines within the Islamic sciences.
Categorisation of Islamic sciences into introductory and core disciplines, places mysticism into the core and fundamental category. It also comes under the category of rational sciences, although practical mysticism comes under the category of scriptural sciences. The inclusion of theoretical mysticism into the intellectual sciences indicates that this type of mysticism reinforces findings of intuition by rational reasoning, although the primary and main source intuition and knowledge is attained through the purity of heart. The results of such spiritual journeys are often confirmed by inductive reasoning. As a result of such a diversified methodology, we classify this type of knowledge as part of rational sciences.
One of the main principles of this discipline, upon which all scholars of ‘irf¡n agree, is that one has to follow a mentor in all phases of a spiritual journey. The honest and experienced leader who is chosen as guide on this journey must also be a friend of God (wal¢ All¡h). (2) The greatest teacher and mentor on this spiritual journey to God is the Prophet of Islam, Mu¦ammed (¥). He and his descendants are the greatest masters and mentors whom one has to follow in the spiritual quest for truth and the meaning of life. They are pioneers of knowledge and teachers of love, without whom one can go astray, as this endeavour can turn out be a very risky adventure without the guidance of the friends of God.
This interpretation is based on a Shi‘i way of thinking that places reason at the forefront of its importance. A reference to authority in the Shi‘i way of thinking is not convincing on its own. In the final analysis the authority rests on reason. On the other hand some schools of thought, mainly from Sunni branches of Islam attribute absolute authority to the practice of the Prophet and deny the role of reason.
The necessity of having a mentor on the spiritual path has been reiterated by great masters in this field. R£m¢ (d. 1274), the great Sufi master and founder of the Mevlevi order of dervishes, in his exciting treatise Mathnav¢-yi Ma‘nav¢ reminds us of this requirement when he says:
Follow the master (p¢r) as without him
This journey is hazardous indeed
Therefore the way that you have not seen before
You should not go alone, do not disobey the mentor. (3)
°¡fi¨ (d. 1389), another famous authority in this field follows the same line when he says:
Do not walk into the quarter of love without a solid reason,
I have made hundreds of attempts but in vain.
Beware of this hazardous path without the guidance of Khezr,
It is darkness and the danger of going astray is present.
According to this important principle of ‘irf¡n, it is necessary to follow a friend or deputy of God. Following the holy Prophet and those who are closest to him as the friend of God is of utmost importance. Secondly, those who are most familiar with the practice and teachings of the Prophet and Imams are also appointed to lead people.
III: The difference between the problems of philosophy and ‘irf¡n
The idea of following the Prophet and other Saints implies that practical ‘irf¡n is a science based on scriptural authority. One can only follow them through an understanding of their practice and of the Holy Qur’¡n. however, theoretical mysticism, philosophy and theology share common features as intellectual inquiries on the nature of existence. On the other hand, practical ‘irf¡n resembles ethics and jurisprudence as all three deal with human agency. Other Islamic sciences do not have any common ground with ‘irf¡n so they are excluded of this study.
The characteristic features of any discipline consist of four elements. First, methodology ascertains the modes of inquiry and method of verification. Second, subject matter (maw¤£‘) defines the science because a ‘science studies the essential properties of its subject matter’. (4)Third, the aporiai and issues (mas¡’il, qa¤¡y¡) involved characterise the discipline. Fourth, the purpose and telos (gh¡ya) of a science defines the aims of the inquiry. (5)
Theoretical ‘irf¡n employs a different methodology from that of philosophy and theology. Besides an inductive intellectual methodology, it relies mainly on intuition (ishr¡q) and direct experience (dhawq). It prefers knowledge that is inspired by an understanding through the heart, rather than by logical reasoning. Because through intuition, a unity of subject of knowledge, knowledge itself and the holder of knowledge occurs (itti¦¡d al-‘aql wa l-‘¡qil wa l-ma‘q£l). On the contrary, the results of rational inquiry are only some reflections or cognitive images of the subject matter of knowledge and the very reality of the subject matter of knowledge itself is absent to the holder of knowledge.
Theoretical mysticism and theology are similar as both establish their results prior to any reasoning and then try to reinforce it through reasoning. However, they differ as the foundation of a priori knowledge in theology has religious authority and in theoretical ‘irf¡n, knowledge is acquired through intuition.
With respect to subject matter, philosophy is different from theoretical ‘irf¡n. The subject matter of philosophy is pure existence or existence qua existence. The subject matter of theoretical ‘irf¡n, on the other hand, is God or a mode of existence whose absence is logically impossible to imagine, that is, the Necessary Existent (w¡jib al-wuj£d). Philosophy deals with existence in its pure form and attributes, regardless of the type of existence. Mysticism, however, focuses only on God and its existence, as other forms of existence, as other forms of existence do not, in fact, exist, they are only a shadow of the existence, namely of God. (6)He is Existence and everything else is a reflection of His Existence. According to ‘irf¡n, existence is equivalent to necessity of existence. That is to say that true existence is the one that is absolutely necessary to exist, that is God. The rest have an illusory existence.
The subject matter of theology includes issues related to the origin of creation, resurrection, Prophethood, leadership and related subjects. The very existence of God and His attributes constitute the subject matter of mysticism. However, mysticism is not concerned with proving the existence of God, which is beyond its sphere. No discipline is required to prove the existence of its subject matter. The existence of God is taken for granted in mysticism and it is the function of onto-theology or theology to prove the existence of God. The mere fact that God exists is a philosophical question, as necessity is among the attributes of existence.
General conceptions are not the same in mysticism and philosophy. In philosophy, existence is divided into categories such as diversity and unity, causality, essence and attributes, eternity and incipience, and necessary (inherent) or possible existence. However, in mysticism with its assumption of monorealism (wa¦dat al-wuj£d), these categories of existence do not make any sense. The different forms and colours of existence are illusory because there is unity in existence. Only one reality exists.
In philosophy, one considers general notions. Through a deductive abstraction process, the mind proceeds to conceptualise some general notions, which do not have reference in concrete existence. The first phase of such process takes place by forging a general concept, which is applicable to tangible and real subjects. For instance, the concept of a ‘cat’ is deduced from the many or one real cats, but this general concept is not equivalent to our image of any individual cat. It is a general concept, which embraces the common features of cats and ignores their peculiarities. This conceptualisation may even go further and imply a secondary concept, such a ‘animal’. There is an even more sophisticated conceptualisation when we deduce logical categories such as ‘generality’, ‘necessity’, ‘causality’ and so on. These are either logical or philosophical secondary concepts (ma‘q£l¡t th¡niyya man§iqiyya aw falsafiyya).
¯adr al-D¢n Mu¦ammad Sh¢r¡z¢ (d. 1641) known as Mull¡ ¯adr¡, a philosopher of the Safavid renaissance in Iran, ended the controversy between philosophy and Irfan when he introduced his transcendental philosophy combing elements from the two camps. (7) The originality of his contribution lies in his existentialist theory (not to be confused with modern European existentialism) (8) according to which the boundaries of existence that make up the identity of things are considered secondary to existence itself. In his theory of the pyramid of existence (hiram-i hast¢), all beings share existence as such but their differences stem from the degree or intensity of their existence. God’s existence in this pyramid has no limit and boundary. Therefore, his identity is identical to His existence. According to this understanding, the differences between philosophy and ‘irf¡n are reconciled. There is diversity (degrees of existence) within the unity (all beings share existence). (9) This is the doctrine of tashk¢k al-wuj£d, or gradation and modulation of existence. (10)
IV: The constancy of existence
Is existence static or dynamic? If it is dynamic, how it can be constant and continue? If existence is constant, what is the impact of the mind? Classical Islamic philosophers believed that if a created being and the cause for its existence existed, that being should continue to exist regardless of the passage of time. In fact, they thought that, despite the passage of time, being maintains its identity (huwiyya). Mysticism does not agree with this way of thinking. Within ‘irf¡n, there is no such continuity and existence is renewed constantly. They assume new identities as time goes by. It is our imagination that tries to ignore this fundamental transformation. Existence is, therefore, a process of becoming.
This disagreement between philosophical and mystical approaches was resolved by Mull¡ ¯adr¡ through his theory of the transitory nature of substance (¦araka jawhariyya). He argues that although fluid existence undergoes constant change, there is one factor that goes through this stretched existence across time. It is existence itself, which is present at all of these moments of change. Again the dynamic and static aspects of existence are reconciled.
Notes:
1-On the hierarchy of knowledge, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and civilization in Islam, 2nd edn., Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society 1987, pp. 59-64, and Osman Bakar, The classification of the sciences in Islamic Philosophy, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society 2000.2-On this critical theme, see ‘All¡ma ±ab¡§ab¡’¢, Ris¡lat al-wil¡ya, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i ¦ikmat 1374 shams¢, and °asanz¡da ªmul¢, "Vil¡yat-i takv¢n¢," in Majm£‘a-yi maq¡l¡t, Qum: Daftar-i tabl¢gh¡t-i Isl¡m¢ 1375 shams¢, pp. 31-82.
3-R£m¢, Mathnav¢-yi ma‘nav¢, ed. R.A. Nicholson, London: Gibb Memorial Trust 1925-40, vol. II, verse 2943.
4-Cf. K¡tib¢ Qazw¢n¢, al-Ris¡la al-Shamsiyya in Biblioteca Indica Appendix I, ed. A. Sprenger, Calcutta: Bengal Military Orphan Press 1854, p. 3.
5-This four-fold schema has important precursors in Neoplatonic and late antique pedagogy and curricular formation. See I. Hadot, "Les introductions aux commentaires exégètiques," in Les règles de l’interpretation, ed. M. Tardieu, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1987, pp. 99-122.
6-D¡w£d al-Qay¥ar¢, Shar¦-i muqaddima-yi Qay¥ar¢ bar Fu¥£¥ al-°ikam, ed. S.J. ªshtiy¡n¢, Qum: Daftar-i tabl¢gh¡t-i isl¡m¢ 1991, p. 100.7-In some of his texts, he privileges mysticism over philosophy. For example, in his hierarchy of sciences in Iks¢r al-‘¡rif¢n in Ras¡’il, Tehran lithograph 1885, pp. 279-86, he places the sciences of ‘states’ (a¦w¡l) at the culmination of human noetic inquiry. Another philosopher who regards mysticism as the culmination of inquiry is Qu§b al-D¢n Sh¢r¡z¢ (d. 1311), who completes his encyclopaedia Durrat al-Taj li-ghurrat al-Dub¡j with a kh¡tima on mysticism – see MS Majlis-i Sh£r¡ 4720 fols. 596-620; cf. J. Walbridge, "A Sufi scientist of the thirteenth century: The mystical ideas and practices of Qu§b al-D¢n Sh¢r¡z¢," in The heritage of Sufism volume II: The legacy of medieval Persian Sufism, ed. L. Lewisohn, rpt., Oxford: Oneworld 1999, pp. 326-40.
8-Cf. the pioneering discussion of Henry Corbin in his introduction to Mull¡ ¯adr¡ Sh¢r¡z¢, Kit¡b al-Mash¡‘ir (Le Livre des Pénétrations métaphysiques, rpt., Tehran: ±ah£r¢ 1982, pp. 62-75.
9-See Fazlur Rahman, The philosophy of Mull¡ ¯adr¡, Albany: State University of New York Press 1975, pp. 27-41.
10-See Sajjad H Rizvi, Modulation of being (tashk¢k al-wuj£d) in the philosophy of Mull¡ ¯adr¡ Sh¢r¡z¢, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University 2000.
The Practice of Mysticism (‘irf¡n-i ‘amal¢) in Islam
Seyed Safavi, SOAS, University of London
Abstract
This survey article introduces the theoretical aspects of the practice of mysticism in Islam. It examines the nature of mysticism, the mystic and his states, the goal of the mystic and the ethics of spiritual wayfaring. The author addresses major themes that are central concerns of mystical authors and describes their meaning. He describes and analyses mystical states drawing on the major practical and homiletic manuals of the Sufi tradition. The paper is both descriptive and prescriptive.
In his Name who taught the soul to think
Who enlightened the heart by the soul’s
insight. (1)
In this article, we attempt to provide a brief introduction to the theory of mystical practice as expounded in classical Islamic mystical texts. A range of issues is considered from the very nature of mysticism to specific states and stages of the path of the mystic. The mystic’s path begins with self-reflection and a contemplation of creation that leads him to the One, his origin, and once the mystic embarks on his journey to the One to his origin he completes his circle of being. His origin is the One and his return is the One. First, he must start with creation.
I: Purpose and design of creation
One of the most positive and decisive Islamic teachings is that the creation has a definitive purpose. Islam contends that the act of creation has not been aimless and in vain. It is for a purpose, as God says in the Holy Qur’¡n:
Did you think that We had created you in vain and that you would never be recalled to Us? (2)
One of the most important, positive and exalted objectives of God’s prophets, indeed the ultimate purpose of creation, is for man to realise and perfect his being as a true servant of God, gaining intuitive knowledge and bearing witness to the Lord. As He said:
I was a hidden treasure but wished that they would know Me, therefore, I created mankind.
and in the holy verse:
I only created mankind and the jinn so that they might worship Me. (4)
Indeed the divine phrase, "…that they would know Me" establishes the divine ¦ad¢th. The truth, the inner reality and the ultimate in Islamic mysticism with respect to the infinite depth of meaning of the above Qur’¡nic verses amounts to divine service to, and intuitive witnessing of, God.
II: Forgetting oneself
Usually when man enters this world, he becomes negligent of himself as a result of such tendencies as neglecting the Lord, seeking the world, pursuing power and status, and satisfying his carnal desires. As God has said
…those who forgot Allah so He caused them to forget themselves. (5)
Men forget the three essential questions of "Where have I come from?" "Where do I go?" and "Why am I?". These are questions that establish the cause, the philosophy and the ultimate objective of the creation and set forth man’s basic essence and his authentic self.
III: Awakening
During a man’s lifetime often circumstances and certain conditions put an end to his negligence and awaken him to observe the blessings of God and make him realize his own sinfulness and how far he has strayed away from the exalted purpose of his own creation. Under such conditions, one understands one’s own shortcomings and spiritual and mental states and stages like those of Ibr¡h¢m ibn Adham (d. 778), Bishr al-°¡f¢ (d. d. 841), Fu¤ayl ibn ‘Iy¡¤, developing his character. As a result, he becomes aware of his real self, of what he is and of what he can be.
IV: What is man and what is he capable of being?
Man has two facets or aspects namely, matter and mind, body and soul, earthly and celestial, and the bestial and angelic. The Qur’¡nic verse
We created man from dry clay, from black
moulded loam (6)
points to the material aspect of man. The
verse
…and breathed of My spirit into him
is indicative of man’s moral or divine aspects. Man’s creation is the loftiest and most exalted model of creation as we read:
Verily, We created man in the best form. (7)
In him both worlds have met now a devil, next a human set. (8)
Man, this trustee of God, (9) this perfectionist and seeker of truth, this divinely trained (10) educated being, (11) and possessor of wonders is capable of being more ferocious and savage than any rabid animal and can sink deep in sins, in self love, in false pleasures and happiness. But man is capable of ascension to the highest levels of heaven and can fulfil the function of being God’s caliph on earth.
And about face from the Hades of the lewd.
All but prepares him to meet the highest good. (12)
And reach such status that, in the words of °azrat ‘Al¢ ibn Ab¢ ±¡lib (‘A),
If veils are removed from the face of the unknown, the secret, nothing new will be revealed to him. (13)
Love, lover and beloved, reason and the reasonable shall be the same to him.
No distinction left among the parts
The knower and the known united
And merged in all the charts. (14)
Naught but His knowledge
Can contain the mystic’s heart
Naught but the Absolute Being
Can his intuition acknowledge. (15)
And, if the ‘seventy thousand veils of darkness and of light’ (16) that bar the peripatetic mystic from the presence of the Lord be removed by rigorous religious practices and by purging the self, or soul, man becomes a theomorphic being and finds peace and tranquillity through his nearness to God. He acquires the contented soul (al-nafs al-mu§ma’inna), which converts him into an entirely divine being. The prophetic tradition sets forth this status of light in the following terms:
And when My faithful servant approaches Me though prayers and good deeds, I shall bestow upon him of My affection. Hence forth, I shall be his ears by which He hears; I shall be his eyes to see with and he shall use My tongue and hands by which to say and to hold. (17)
And if divine love sets fire to the heart of this gem of the world of creation, this most noble creature (man), he shall attain to such an exalted stage as the following divine edict purports:
He who seeks Me finds Me
He who finds Me know Me
He who knows Me befriend Me
He who befriends Me loves Me
He who loves Me shall be loves by Me
And I shall destroy him who loves Me
And he whom I destroy is entitled to revenge
or ‘blood money’ from Me
And I shall stand ‘blood money’ and at the
disposal of him whom I have destroyed. (18)
However, attaining to such a superb position and to pure life and eternal serenity is possible only when:
Dust and dirt are you entire
Cast them away now
Go dust off your heart
Make room worth of the Beloved
Make your exit to let Him in
His face shall be manifest to you
When you no more are
In your heart no light shall shine
Unless the snare are first remove
Your prayers shall avail you naught
Unless you give your-self up in full
When your essence is purged at last
Of things ugly and obscene
Your prayers shall surely shine
Well bright and all serene. (19)
V: Mysticism (‘irf¡n) as an agent for uniting man with God
Of all the Islamic tenets and teachings, the one that is exclusively devoted to the basic issue of the manner and quality of man’s spiritual conduct, his fight against carnal desires, is attainment of union with the Lord. Man thus ceases to exist independently but continues his existence in Him. This is mysticism or Sufism.
Mystic knowledge, as a thorough cultural system that pertains to man’s spiritual life, has its theoretical base in an unimpeachable belief in the fact that the most perfect way to receive the essence and the truth of existence is through intuitive knowledge and perception, the unification of reason with the reasoned and the reasonable, love with lover and the beloved. From the practical point of view, it is based on the performance of lawful ascetic practices, purification of the ego or soul, vigilance, reckoning of the self, the saying of prayers and passing beyond the surface and the superfluities of worldly affair and in the utmost attachment to the truths of all matters relating to body and soul.
‘Irf¡n (mysticism) is both theoretical and practical. The theoretical undertakes the elaboration and interpretation of God, the world and the man from a mystical viewpoint. It provides mystical answers to the three essential questions of life, namely the whence, wherefore and whither.
Practical mysticism is also called wayfaring or peripatetic journeying and sets forth the realisations and duties of man with himself, with the world and with God. (20) It denotes what a s¡lik or walker, wayfarer, or peripatetic Sufi or mystic’s initial conduct and its terminal points must be in order to become a Perfect Man (ins¡n-i k¡mil) and successor of God on earth and reach the highest position that is possible for man to attain. That exalted human status is the dissolution (fan¡) of his being in God and his subsistence (baq¡) by His will to eternal life. It describes a Sufi’s duties of conduct, his means, his states and the experience he goes through on his way to join with the Lord. Ways to purge the self, to combat the ego and purify the soul are also included among these practices. Thus ‘irf¡n is described as an intuitive knowledge of God that leads man to His Presence and to the ultimate which is to witness and be in Presence with God (liq¡’All¡h).
VI: The Law, the Way and the Truth (shar¢‘at, §ar¢qat, ¦aq¢qat)
In the clash of ideas among Islamic scholars and thinkers, some are exponents of pure fiqh or Islamic religious jurisprudence. They support the view that religion means the face value of what its laws and tenets signify. However, the ‘uraf¡’ (plural for ‘¡rif, meaning mystics) believe that religious laws and decrees have implications and meanings other than what meets the eye. (21) They hold that behind and beyond the surface and explicit meanings of religious edicts, there exist certain truths that are the real aims and objectives of religion. Therefore, the mystics have their own conclusions regarding the real import and significance of religious beliefs and precepts such as monotheism, prophethood, resurrection, daily prayers, the pilgrimage, fasting, and so on. The real mystics, to be sure, adhere to a holistic conception of life that comprises the law, the way and the truth (shar¢‘at, §ar¢qat, ¦aq¢qat). (22) They maintain that attainment of truth is not possible except through religion. It has been said:
Shar¢‘at
is the rind, Truth the kernel.
Between the two lies the Way.
Break up the shell,
Hold up the peal
Cast off the rind
Take up the sweet nut Word,
With their rhetoric and syntax
All have but a letter at the core
No way to waste one’s life
The dear life to circle and spin
Green peels reveal the juicy nut
Crack the skin and get at the dehiscent pod
Unripe is the nut not covered in skin
Face-sheet in for often yield
Glorious data of faith in charming din. (24)
The Sufi regards the shar¢‘at (face, appearance) and §ar¢qat (the hidden, the concealed) as the guiding light and the way but his objective is his destination which is above these two and above all else. This he calls God and the Truth, al-°aqq and ¦aq¢qat, in which the realisation of all things and objects rest. The mystic regards the attainment to such knowledge as the ultimate point in all creation. He sees all things and objects (in the universe) as seeking Him and desiring His knowledge, the §ar¢qat and the shar¢‘at are both preludes to such achievement. (25)
The ‘uraf¡’ believe that the heart, the core and the essence (b¡§in) or the inner being of shar¢‘at is the way which they term §ar¢qat. This way or road ends in truth, which is monotheism and it occurs after the mystic has ceased to exist as an independent entity. Thus the ‘¡rif (mystic, Sufi) believes in three things: the shar¢‘at, the §ar¢qat and the ¦aq¢qat. (26)
Know that shar¢‘at is the word of the prophets, §ar¢qat is the deed or action of the prophets and ¦aq¢qat is the vision or perception or insight of the prophets. (27) The s¡lik or walker must first learn what he must of the shar¢‘at. Then he must perform of the actions of the §ar¢qat as much as he should so that the lights of truth are revealed to him commensurate with his efforts.
O Dervish! He who accepts what his prophet has said is of the shar¢‘at and he who performs what his prophet has performed is of the §ar¢qat and he who sees what his prophet has seen is of ¦aqq (truth). (28)
Shar¢‘at is like a candle, it kindles the way, Without acquiring a light, the path cannot be traversed. As you enter the way your wayfaring is §ar¢qat. And, when you reach the destination, that is the ¦aqq (truth). (29)
VII: Who is a mystic (‘¡rif)?
An ‘¡rif is a person who arrives at a knowledge of truth (as it is) through intuition and spiritual illumination and inspiration. He is submerged and deeply involved and engaged in divine affairs and matters. He is committed and dedicated to the commands and decrees of religion (shar¢‘at) and has merged shar¢‘at and ¦aq¢qat. A real mystic is one who has passed from the stage of certainty (‘ilm al-yaq¢n) and conviction of knowledge to the stage and level of conviction by perception and insight (‘ayn al-yaq¢n) and beyond to the certainty of truth (¦aqq al-yaq¢n). (30) He has passed from the stage of mental awakening and repentance. He has gained understanding to the stage of grace and awareness experienced in His Presence. He has undergone obliteration and found revival in the Lord. A true mystic is also one who performs prayers, purges his ego, and experiences religiously allowed rigorous ascetic exercises not from fear of hell, nor for love of paradise and not as extraordinary wondrous acts. Rather, he has God in mind in all this and nothing and no one else, as the Holy Qur’¡n says:
My prayers and my devotions, my life and my death, are all for Allah. (31)
The term ‘¡rif has been defined variously. It has been given different meanings from differing angles, view and attitudes. Some have differentiated between ‘¡rif and Sufi but we have ignored such distinctions in this study. However, the following definitions are commonplace in the literature.
1) Avicenna (d. 1037) says that an ‘¡rif is one
Who has turned away his conscience, or heart and mind from all things except God and has opened up his inner being to the sacred and holy world so that the light of truth (God) may shine and become reflected in it. (32)
2) Junayd (d. 910) says:
Ta¥awwuf (mysticism) is picking and screening…and anyone who is cut off or separated from all that is not of God, is a Sufi. (33)
3) Junayd also says:
A Sufi is one whose heart, like that of Abraham, is safe from love of this world; who performs God’s commands as Abraham and submits him self to His Will as Abraham and Ishmael; whose grief is such as David’s, whose ‘poverty’ is like that of Christ, whose patience is that of Job; whose enthusiasm be like that of Moses and whose sincerity be as that of Mu¦ammad. (34)
Sufis often trace their spiritual and initiatic lineage back to the Prophet through his family, especially the first eight Shi‘i Imams.
VIII: The goal of mysticism as distinct from practical reason and philosophy
Arguments of reason may all be jewels and gems. Yet, pleas of the heart are surely something else. (36)
IX: What is wayfaring (sul£k)?
‘Irf¡n is ever concerned with man’s conscience, the core of his being and heart. Sul£k, which means walking, has a particular meaning in mystical terminology. Physical walking with the legs is not what is intended. Sul£k means entrance of the mind and the heart into the world within, into the world unknown, the invisible world.
Sul£k indicates ‘going’ generally. The walker may make physical journeys or he may make trips to the realms of the mind or the heart. To the Sufis or mystics, sul£k means a special going: (38) moving or going towards God, and moving or traversing within the Divine Realm. Going to the Lord is finite but moving within Him is infinite.
Sayr or movement towards God implies that the itinerant, the mover, should continue in the path until he ceases to exist as he is and finds survival in God. In other words, he hears, sees, speaks and knows through the Lord.
Thou art the Path, the Journeyer, and the Destination.
Sayr in God means that when the s¡lik or the aspirant is to meet with the Lord, he finds new life, after submitting his being to Him. By His Will, he shall continue his sayr, or journey of discovery until the time that he can see and know all things in detail as they truly are and that nothing, whatever, on earth, in Heaven or else where in the Almighty’s Domain, remains unknown to him. (39) Know that by sul£k, the mystics means moving from bad words to worthy argument; from bad deeds to good deeds; from bad conduct to good conduct and from one’s own essence and being to that of the Lord. (40)
X: The reality of wayfaring
The reality of wayfaring is to overwhelm the body and the soul or self under the banner of faith through the decrees and commands of the fiqh (religious laws and edicts) as pertain to the body and the mind under the Almighty’s divine banner. The entirety of the ups and downs of the path, its pursuits, crises and consequences are registered in these stages. (41)
XI: Intention (niyyat) in sul£k
Actions are judged by their intention. (42)
The declaration of intention, that is, a deliberate, conscious, and wilful undertaking of sul£k is extremely important. Fiqh has decreed the enunciation of the intention to ensure that religious rituals like daily prayers are correct and acceptable. However, in mystical knowledge, every act and deed of man whether the compulsory ones, or the recommended acts, should express as their intention nearness to God. The s¡lik’s wish behind his declared intentions should not be a request for material well-being, it should not be a request for knowledge and gnosis; it should not be a request, a wish to be human and have all human values and grades developed in him. For, if this is realised, all the above wishes shall be granted, even things that the s¡lik has not dreamed of. (43)
XII: Aspects of sul£k
The sul£k consists of the following qualities: silence (samt), abstinence (or hunger), seclusion (khalvat), wakefulness (yaq¨a), nocturnal devotion or vigilance (tahajjud). The elders, or authorities of Sufism, hold that sul£k is based on four pillars: frugal consumption, saying little, sleeping little, and staying in seclusion from people. (44)
Samt or silence is of two types. General silence is keeping one’s tongue from all that is unnecessary and talking only when necessary and avoiding speech in excess of what is necessary. It is to avoid talk that is not of God. Such silence must be maintained at all times. The a¦¡d¢th (traditions) and narratives indicate this type of silence. According to one ¦ad¢th,
Silence is the motto of the lovers. It pleases God. Silence is the practice of the prophets and the elite.
Special silence safeguards one’s tongue in talking with people or with non-initiates in the absolute and, in this sense, it is regarded as a necessary condition in all exclusively theological recitals. (45) This category is silence by the heart, that is, keeping silence for the sake of what is not of God. (46) Thus he who is silent by the tongue has lightened his burden. But he who keeps silent by word and heart, seek him for Almighty God has made His Will manifest in him.
He, whose tongue is not silent but is silent in his heart, is a speaker in terms of ¦ikmat (wisdom). He, who will not keep silent in words or in his heart, is possessed by the devil. Silence by the tongue is only the goal of the masses. Silence of the heart is an attribute of those who are near to the Lord and they are men of perception, insight and vision.
There is no worship like silence
He remains safe who remains silent. (47)
Hunger (or abstinence) is also of two types, deliberate and of constraint. Deliberate abstinence belongs to the peripatetics. Abstinence of constraint is that of the searchers. A mu¦aqqiq or seeker does not hold the soul in hunger but his food intake is little. Hunger in any condition and for any reason it may be, is the strength of a s¡lik’s claim and reveals great things to the seekers (of truth). Abstinence has states and stages such as humility, respect, courtesy, mendacity absence of excess, quiescence of limbs and destruction or eradication of unworthy memories. Such are the states and stages of abstinence of the walkers of the Path.
But the abstinence or hunger of the mu¦aqqaq¢n or seekers is sympathy, serenity, fellowship, non-being and purification from human characteristics. It is divine seclusion from the veils of time, a most sublime status namely, ¥amad¡n¢, an attribute of God meaning absolute lack of want and need but wanted and needed by everything and everyone, a status that contains secrets and revelations.(48). It is better that abstinence be observed in such a way as not to weaken the s¡lik’s conduct and upset the mind and heart. In this connection, Imam al-¯¡diq (‘A) has said,
Abstinence insures the believer’s constant progression, is food for the soul and nourishment for the heart. (49)
Hunger is a great aid to refresh the soul and to break habits. (50)
There are two types of seclusion (khalvat), general and private. General seclusion (also called withdrawal) is staying away from all that is not of God, especially from such people who are sinful and seekers of this world. Association with these groups or individuals is permissible only to the extent that it is absolutely necessary. Association with the chaste, the faithful does not negate such seclusion. The words of the Immaculate Shi‘i Imams indicate that this is the type of seclusion that must be observed. As Imam °usayn (‘A) has said,
There never was a prophet, messenger or apostle who did not go into seclusion at one time or other, in the beginning, during or at the end of his life. (51)
The occasional retiring of the Prophet to the Cave at Hira is an indication of this type of seclusion. At any rate, this is the preferred variety of seclusion. Private seclusion implies being alone and staying away from upsetting noises. It calls for remembrance of God and saying prayers in isolation in an enclosure not much larger than the, s¡lik himself. The place should be clean and lawfully occupied and it is better that it have no window. This type of seclusion is observed and recommended by certain elders, if not by all, who perform recital exercises in remembrance of God. (52)
Solitude is of two kinds. The solitude (‘uzlat) of the devotees is observed by avoidance of physical association with others. The solitude of the seekers (mu¦aqqaq¢n) is the exercise of the heart in avoiding all things and objects and keeping the heart free and open only to God and His Knowledge. This leads to awareness of the Lord and to the divine secrets of the oneness of God. Seclusion and solitude purge the s¡lik of any non-divine trait or impediment. Seclusion and solitude afford the seekers (of the Lord) the highest standing and opportunity for intuitive knowledge of God and for witnessing His Presence. (53)
Wakefulness (or sleeping a little) refers to the alertness of the mind and heart and it is either through the eyes staying open, or by the heart being on the alert. Alertness of the heart means putting an end to being negligent, remiss and heedless and to seek and ask for divine perception. Wakefulness of the eyes means remaining in the wakeful state with eyes open to beseech for the alertness and vigilance of the mind and heart. Know that action of the heart is void with eyes close (negligence of watchfulness). If the s¡lik keeps a vigilant heart with his eyes closed, he shall witness the alertness and the watchfulness of his eyes. (54)
Therefore, the fruit of wakefulness will be the perpetuation of the heart’s action and ascension of the s¡lik to exalted places that are reserved for the Lord. The state of wakefulness is to maintain and cherish those states that befall the s¡lik or are bestowed upon him as he advances toward his goal. The searcher or seeker (mu¦aqqiq) enjoys divine qualities through the wakeful stage.
As for nocturnal devotion or vigilance (tahajjud), the holy Qur’¡n says:
Pray during the latter part of the night, an additional duty for which your Lord may exalt you to a position of praise and glory. (55)
It is recommended that the s¡lik spend half the night, or a third, or two thirds in prayers and devotion. The Qur’¡nic verse which is addressed to the Prophet confirms this as we read:
O you who are wrapped up in your mantle, rise to pray by night except a little, half the night or little less or little more. (56)
There have been eager s¡lik-s who did not let up on their nocturnal devotions until daybreak and so were able to say the morning prayer with the ablution they had for evening prayers. Shaykh Ab£ ±¡lib al-Makk¢ (d. 996) has mentioned the names of forty such men, followers of the Prophet in the book named Q£t al-qul£b (Nourishment of the hearts). (57) It is recommended that nocturnal devotions take no less than one-sixth of the night time. Know that staying up at night is by Divine Grace and not merely the act of a seeker going in search of his beloved. (58)The light of love for getting up at night shall not be kindled in a s¡lik’s heart unless the real Beloved has first made itself manifest in the heart of the believer. When the heart receives such an inkling, the willing soul is awakened and in all honour and ecstasy stands in prayer before the Creator of all goodness and asks relief from the agony of separation of lovers and the Beloved. (59)
Shaykh-s who achieved spiritual states, all observed nocturnal vigilance. One can find many references to the excellence of tahajjud or nocturnal devotion, in the rising at nights to spend time in prayers of supplication in numerous Qur’¡nic verses and traditions. (60) It is related that the most despicable men in the eyes of God are those who lie down like corpses all night and waste their days in loafing. (61) Therefore, tahajjud means wakefulness as the Holy Qur’¡n directs night prayers, prayers of supplication, repentance, remembrance of God, reckoning with the self and reprimanding it. These are some of the major rites and exercises of ‘irf¡n.
XIII: The Four Journeys in Mysticism
Journeys are of various types in mysticism. There is the physical journey which the s¡lik or walker along the Path undertakes. Then there are the inner journeys and journeys that imply a beginning and an end with superior destinations. These moral or spiritual journeys are divided into four journeys, each of which is endowed with very subtle points. The depth of ‘irf¡n and its sayr and sul£k rest in these journeys. We shall not analyse them here in any detail but merely mention the most concise text concerning the four divine journeys:
Know that four journeys exist for the seekers among the mystics and divine authorities. These are the journey from men towards God, journeying along with the Lord within Him. The third journey is the opposite of the first, it is from God to man with God and the fourth journey is in some respects opposite to the second for it is journeying with God among men. (62)
The first journey is devoted to the removal of all curtains or veils of darkness and light and the entering the world of matter, the Heavens and the Lord’s divine domain. The second journey is passing through the world of spirit. However, the third journey, the journey from God to man is superior to the second journey because the latter is sukr or intoxication in reaching God and disappearing in Him, which when achieved, the s¡lik finds new life in the Lord and by his eyes, and through every means. In this fourth journey, he sees and perceives the entire world of matter and Heaven and witnesses the grandeur of the Divine Domain of Power and Majesty and imparts knowledge of actions, attributes and of essence. (63)
XIV: Sufi character and conduct
The most significant feature of the Sufis or mystics is their behaviour or conduct which consists of patience, humility, advice, sympathy, kindness, moderation, devotion, service, fellowship, joy, generosity, compassion, friendliness, pardon, munificence, fidelity, decency, affection, cheerfulness, calmness, prayer, good temperament, soothed ego, respect for brothers, honoring the elders, mercy toward minors and adults, belittling the ego of himself and rating high all that comes unto him. (64) The Prophet said,
I have been sent down to destroy bad habits and teach proper conduct to the servants (of God). (65)
In his counsel to Mu‘¡dh ibn Jabal, the Prophet in fact compiled all good and proper conduct as he says and ruled out improper conduct:
O Mu‘¡dh! Practice chastity and virtue, be truthful in word and action, fulfil promises and return to the owner all that has been left with you in trust. Avoid treason and observe neighbourliness; have mercy and compassion for orphans", talk softly and offer greetings, do good and to not seek plenty. Treat this world with disdain but cherish the next. Beware the Day of Reckoning. Try, O Mu‘¡dh, not to curse the patient and the meek. Make sure you commit no sin; repent immediately if you do and continue in a state of repentance. Know that Almighty God admits those of His servants to His Presence who are equipped with these qualities.
These are some of the qualities that a Sufi must possess:
1. Humility
A Sufi’s best quality is his humility. He who entertains humility in his heart can benefit by it all the time. He will be at ease in his association with others and others will be comfortable when dealing with him. The Prophet of God, in spite of his glorious status, set examples of humility by darning his own clothes and shoes with his own hands. He sat down and spoke with the poor, the orphaned and aided them. B¡yaz¢d Bis§¡m¢ (d. 875) said,
A man is humble who belittles his own ego and holds it at the lowest level and regards himself as the worse and lowliest living creature.
2. Moderation and Leniency
Another Sufi characteristic is moderation and leniency, forbearance and toleration of others. The Prophet never said an unkind word to anyone. He never derided a food (put before him), nor did he punish a servant. It must be born in mind that the general moderation that people observe is a Sufi characteristic. It is said that everything has and essence. Man’s essence is reason and patience is reason’s essence. The proof of a man’s reason is his tolerance of the pains and hardships inflicted on him by others and also courteous treatment of the people which purges the ego of impurities and palliates mulishness and quick anger. It is recorded in a ¦ad¢th (tradition) that he who enjoys being lenient most shall reap more benefits.
3. Sacrifice
Another quality of the Sufis is their readiness for sacrifice. Sacrifice generates from a powerful sense of compassion and mercy. It implies the strength of the soul to give away an only available object in sacrifice to others. It also implies patience and independence. Ab£ °afs Suhraward¢ (d. 1234) said,
Sacrifice means preferring brothers and friends to oneself in all affairs of this and of other world, so that there be no distinction among blood brothers, relatives, and friends.
4. Pardon or Forgiveness
Pardoning of others is another Sufi trait. Mystics go to the extreme in overlooking the wrongs done to them by others. Sufy¡n al-Thawr¢ (d. 778) said,
If you do good to someone who has harmed you, then it can be said that you have done good, for returning good for good is the work of tradesmen.
The Prophet said,
To do good means to pardon the cruelty of other’s to yourself and to make up with and join him who severs his ties with you and to be generous to him who withholds things from you.
5. Cheerfulness
Good-naturedness and cheerfulness are other Sufi characteristics. It warms the hearts and pleases others. Their joyfulness is a sign of the light of their hearts. As Almighty God says
..There shall be beaming faces, smiling and cheerful. (66)
6. Indulgence
Another of the qualities of the mystic is that he is opposed to formalism and fastidiousness in his manner and conduct. A condition for this is imitation of the Prophet in softness of speech and joviality. The prophet once said,
I do not make jokes and do not utter anything except the truth.
Taking things hard or being hard to please is bad in everything including dress, food, reception of guests, in asking questions, in speech and in all other things pertaining to this world.
7. Generosity (Inf¡q)
Inf¡q is another specified characteristic of the Sufis. Hoarding is abhorent because the Sufi sees himself as residing by the seaside. He considers that divine blessings shall remain with him indefinitely, and if one who lives by the sea takes to hoarding water he will be open to ridicule and accused of ignorance. The Prophet says
Each day two angels make the following declamation: "0 Lord bless him with plenty who is busy performing charitable deeds and destroy the assets and holdings of him who is miserly and withholds things from the people."
8. Contentment
The Master of the Faithful and Preceptor of seekers, Imam ‘Al¢ (‘A) said,
Contentment is a blade that never becomes blunt.
Dh£ l-N£n al-Mi¥r¢ (d. 859) said:
He who exercises contentment shall be free of and at peace with the people and shall gain superiority and excellence over his peers.
9. Putting Off Enmity and Anger
A Sufi must purge himself of all feelings of anger and animosity. There should be no such feelings in a Sufi’s heart toward anything or anyone. Such feelings should be replaced by spiritual qualities in a Sufi and by himself. The Messenger of God has said:
Power and might do not consist in overwhelming someone by force. Mighty is he who controls his feelings of anger.
10. Peacemaking
The Sufi is able and willing to make peace, to agree with and befriend others and to give up a feud. The Lord has described His Messenger’s Apostles in these words:
Let them be hard on Our enemies but lenient and merciful to Our friends.
11. Proper Gratefulness
When a s¡lik is first developed into a fountainhead for monotheism, he loses all beings in Almighty God. He sees the Lord as the source of all generosity and prohibitions. As he proceeds and develops farther and reaches monotheism in its pure and absolute form, he finds the proof and reason for divine bestowals and withholdings. He sees the cause first and next the effect and such awareness and knowledge is gained by insight. The s¡lik will then offer thanks first to the Benefactor, the Absolute Donor and then to the Cause that has acted as intermediate. It is recorded in a ¦ad¢th that the first and foremost group of people to be invited to Heaven shall be the thankful ones, those who are grateful in prosperity in hardship, in sorrow and in joy.
12. Status and Dignity
Whenever a s¡lik has knowledge and is aware of the blights of ego it maybe that he confers of what he has to assist friends and uses his status and wealth to improve and reform relations. A man’s integrity comes to a test in four things: interdiction, charity honor and lowliness. (67)
XV: The Stages and Journeys of suluk
We conclude this paper with a discussion of the stages of the Path. The s¡lik (seeker) goes through numerous states, positions, waystations from the beginning to the end of his procession toward God. (68) There are various views regarding the number of such stages. Shaykh Ma¦m£d Shabistar¢ (d. 1337), says in his book, the Gulshan-i r¡z (The Rose garden of secrets):
Two steps to a s¡lik’s
path
But nine perils they contain
Loss of identity comes first
Next to cross the wilderness
Known as life’s domain.
However, prominent mystics contend these positions are seven. Ab£ Na¥r al-Sarr¡j (d. 988), in his authoritative book al-Luma‘, discusses seven stages, namely, repentance, abstinence, asceticism, mendicancy, patience, trust, resignation or consent. (69)In his Man§iq al-±ayr (Language of the birds), Far¢d al-d¢n ‘A§§¡r (d. ca. 1221) considers the following stages: begging, love, knowledge, independence, monotheism, mendicancy and annihilation (fan¡) or ceasing to exist. The highest figure for a s¡lik’s positions and stages provided in the books ¯ad Mayd¡n (One hundred Fields) (70) and Man¡zil Al-S¡’ir¢n (Stations of the wayfarers),(71) by Khw¡ja ‘Abd All¡h An¥¡r¢ (d. 1089) is one hundred. (72)The main reason for this discrepancy lies in the mystics’ elaborations or in their summarizing or in the differences of their statuses and points of destination. Or, they may each have posed the issue from a different view.
From the expanse of oneness
‘A word was heard, saying:
"I am the Lord"
Another went by distance covered
By boats near and far
Yet another remarked
Of the tress, the mole and line Of the Beloved
by candle and wine
When destination came to the fore
Men of understanding reasoned no more. (73)
Finally, we conclude our short paper and shorter excursus on mystic states with a summary of the states, stages and waystations that a s¡lik must go through as given in Suhraward¢’s ªd¡b al-mur¢d¢n:
1-Awakening (intib¡h) from the torpor of neglect.2-Repentance (tawba), that is returning from all that is not of God after having gone astray and to maintain a state of constant repentance.
3-In¡bat is going back to the remembrance of God. Some have said that repentance is by fear and in¡bat is by desire and choice. A third group maintains that repentance is external and in¡bat is internal.
4-Wara‘a is foregoing something about which a doubt has risen. It means abstinence and self-restraint.
5-Taking stock of oneself and examining one’s soul (mu¦¡sabat al-nafs), reflecting upon one’s actions.
6-Sincerity implies tolerance of pain and forsaking comfort.
7-Renunciation (zuhd) is turning away from things that are permissible or religiously sanctioned and to guide or re-channel the desires and passions.
8-Mendacity (faqr) involves absence of self and property and removing from the heart all that leaves the hand.
9-Truthfulness (¥idq), both external and internal.
10-Ta¥¥abur, or tolerance is forbearance of bitterness and these are the final positions or stages of the novitiates (mur¢d¡n).
11-Patience (¥abr) that relinquishes complaints.
12-Submission is the enjoyment of mishap.
13-Ikhl¡¥ (sincerity) implies forcing men out of the Lord’s business.
14-Resignation or trust (tawakkul) means relying upon Him, who destroys lust for all except Him.
Notes: 1-Ma¦m£d Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, ed. ¯. Muva¦¦id, Tehran: ±ah£r¢ 1368 Shams¢, first stanza. On this theme in his thought, see L. Lewisohn, Beyond faith and infidelity: The Sufi poetry and teachings of Mahmud Shabistari, Richmond: Curzon Press 1995, pp. 217ff.
2-Al-Qur’¡n, al-mu’min£n (The Believers) 23: 115.
3-Ibn ‘Arab¢, al-Fut£¦¡t al-Makkiyya, Cairo: B£l¡q 1911, vol. II, pp. 231-32, 310; Mu¦ammad al-Khw¡rizm¢, Shar¦ Fu¥£¥ al-¦ikam, ed. S.J. ªshtiy¡n¢, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i °ikmat 1364 Shams¢, pp. 285, 242; Q¡¤¢ Sa‘¢d al-Qumm¢, Shar¦ Taw¦¢d al-¯ad£q, ed. N. °ab¢b¢, Tehran: vol. I, pp. 40; 54, 101, 507, 686, 703; Jav¡d¢ ªmul¢, Ta¦r¢r Tamh¢d al-qaw¡‘id-i ¯¡’in al-D¢n ‘Al¢ Ibn Mu¦ammad al-Turka, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i Zahr¡’ 1372 Shams¢, p. 510. Cf. A. Schimmel, Mystical dimensions of Islam, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1975, pp. 139, 189, 268, 291, 382; W. Chittick, The Sufi path of knowledge: Ibn ‘Arab¢’s metaphysics of imagination, Albany: State University of New York Press 1989, pp. 66, 126, 180, 204, 250.4-Al-Qur’¡n, al-Dh¡riy¡t (The scattering winds) 51: 56.
5-Al-Qur’¡n, al-°ashr (The resurrection) 59: 19.
6-Al-Qur’¡n, al-°ijr (The Rock) 15: 26.
7-Al-Qur’¡n, al-T¢n (The Fig) 95: 4.
8-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 151.9-Al-Qur’¡n, al-A¦z¡b (The Confederates) 33: 77.
10-Al-Qur’¡n, al-Isr¡’ (The Night Journey) 17: 70.
11-Al-Qur’¡n, al-Baqara (The Cow) 2: 31 and al-‘Alaq (The Clot) 96: 6.
12-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 329. 13-ªmid¢, Ghurar al-¦ikam wa durar al-kalim, ed. J. Urmaw¢, Tehran: Tehran University Press 1366 Shams¢, vol. V, p. 108, ¦ad¢th # 7569; Maytham al-Ba¦r¡n¢, Shar¦ mi’at kalima, ed. J. Urmaw¢,Beirut: Mu’assasat al-A‘lam¢ li l-ma§b£‘¡t 1996, pp. 52ff; °aydar ªmul¢, Tafs¢r al-Mu¦¢§ al-A‘¨am wa l-ba¦r al-khi¤am, ed. S.M. Musaw¢ Tabr¢z¢, Tehran: Viz¡rat-i farhang va irsh¡d-i Isl¡m¢ 1374 Shams¢, vol. I, p. 249; 14-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 411. 15-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 395, referring to the ¦ad¢thMy heavens and My earth embrace Me not, but the heart of My believing servant does embrace Me.
See Ghaz¡l¢, I¦y¡’ ‘ul£m al-d¢n, Cairo: B£l¡q 1908-09, vol. III, pp. 1, 12; Ibn ‘Arab¢, al-Fut£¦¡t, vol. I, p. 216 and vol. III, p. 250 inter alia; ‘All¡ma Majlis¢, Bi¦¡r al-anw¡r, 3rd edition, Beirut: D¡r i¦y¡’ al-tur¡th al-‘arab¢ 1983, vol. LV, p. 39; Qumm¢, Shar¦ Taw¦¢d, vol. I, p. 414. Cf. Chittick, The Sufi path of knowledge, pp. 107, 276, 339-40, 348, 379; Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, p. 190.
16-Ibn ‘Arab¢, Ras¡’il, ed, N.M. Hirav¢, Tehran 1369 Shams¢, p. 70; eadem, Fut£¦¡t, vol. II, p. 262; Qumm¢, Shar¦ Taw¦¢d, vol. I, p. 491; Majlis¢, Bi¦¡r, vol. LV, p. 44, ¦ad¢th # 9-13. Cf. Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, p. 96; Chittick, The Sufi path of knowledge, pp. 217, 328, 364; al-Ghazali, The niche of lights, tr. W.H.T. Gairdner, New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan 1991, p. 44. 17-Ibn ‘Arab¢, Ras¡’il, p. 29; eadem, Fut£¦¡t, vol. II, p. 553; Kulayn¢, al-K¡f¢, ed. ‘A. Ghaff¡r¢, Tehran: Tehran University Press 1957-60, vol. II, p. 352; Majlis¢, Bi¦¡r, vol. LXVII, p. 22; Qumm¢, Shar¦ Taw¦¢d, vol. I, 29-30, 702. Cf. Chittick, The Sufi path of knowledge, pp. 176, 326-29; Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, pp. 43, 133, 144, 277. 18-Qumm¢, Shar¦ Taw¦¢d, vol. I, pp. 736-37; cf. Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, p. 136.19-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplets 397-99, 402, 409, 410.
20-Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, pp. 98-108. 21-Lewisohn, Faith and infidelity, pp. 274-77, 304ff.22-See the classic work of Shi‘i Sufism on this topic, Asr¡r al-shar¢‘a of Sayyid °aydar ªmul¢ (d. after 1385), tr. A. Yate as Inner secrets of the Path, London: Element Books for the Zahra Trust 1991.
23-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 455. 24-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 575-580. 25-‘Abdul °usayn Zarr¢nk£b, The value of the Sufi heritage, Tehran 1362 Shams¢, p. 101. 26-Murta¤¡ Mu§ahhar¢, ‘Ul£m-i Isl¡m¢, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i ¯adr¡ 1366 Shams¢, vol. II, pp. 94-95.27-Cf. the ¦ad¢th in M¢rz¡ °usayn N£r¢, Mustadrak al-was¡’il, Qum: Ism¡‘¢liy¡n n.d., vol. XI, p. 173; ªmul¢, Tafs¢r, vol. I, p. 195 and pp. 227-28 for discussion; Schimmel, Mystical dimensions, p. 99.
28-‘Az¢z-i Nasaf¢, Kit¡b al-Ins¡n al-K¡mil, ed. M. Molé, Tehran: ±ah£r¢ 1362 Shams¢, p. 3.29-R£m¢, Mathnav¢-yi Ma‘nav¢, ed. R.A. Nicholson, London: Giib Memorial Trsut 1925-40, preface to Book Five.
30-On these concepts, see Martin Lings, The book of certainty, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society 1992, pp. 1-11.
31-Al-Qur’¡n, al-An‘¡m (The Cattle) 6: 162.
32-Ibn S¢n¡, al-Ish¡r¡t wa l-tanb¢h¡t with commentaries, ed. M. Shih¡b¢, Qum: Nashr al-bal¡gha 1375 Shams¢, vol. III, p. 369. 33-‘A§§¡r, Tadhkirat al-awliy¡’, ed. R.A. Nicholson, London: Gibb Memorial Trust 1905-7, vol. II, p. 34. 34-‘A§§¡r, Tadhkirat al-awliy¡’, vol. II, p. 34. 35-Murta¤¡ Mu§ahhar¢, ‘Ul£m-i Isl¡m¢, vol. II, pp. 87, 90-91. 36-Shabistar¢, Gulshan-i r¡z, couplet 121; Mu¦ammad L¡h¢j¢, Maf¡t¢¦ al-I‘j¡z, eds. M.R. Kh¡liq¢ & ‘I. Karb¡s¢, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i Zavv¡r 1371 Shams¢, pp. 66-72. Cf. Lewisohn, Faith and infidelity, pp. 228-37. 37-Ibn S¢n¡, al-Ish¡r¡t wa l-tanb¢h¡t, vol. III, p. 375. 38-Nasaf¢, Ins¡n-i K¡mil, pp. 12-3, 84.39-Nasaf¢, Zubdat al-¦aq¡’iq, ed. °aqq-vard¢ N¡¥ir¢, Tehran: ±ah£r¢ 1985, p. 111.
40-Sayyed Mahd¢ Ba¦r al-‘ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, ed. S.M. °usayn¢ ±ehr¡n¢, Tehran: Intish¡r¡t-i °ikmat 1981, p. 131. 41-Ba¦r al-‘ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, p. 131. 42-Jam¡l al-D¢n Khw¡ns¡r¢, Shar¦ ghurar al-¦ikam, ed. J. Urmaw¢, Tehran: Tehran University Press 1366 Shams¢, vol. I, p. 260, ¦ad¢th # 1040 and vol. IV, p. 191 ¦ad¢th # 5792. 43-Nasaf¢, Ins¡n-i K¡mil, p. 86. 44-Ab£ °afs ‘Umar Suhraward¢, ‘Aw¡rif al-ma‘¡rif, tr. Q. An¥¡r¢, Tehran n.d., p. 104. Cf. The ‘Awarif al-ma’arif, tr. H.W. Clarke, Lahore: Mohammad Ashraf 1979 repr., pp. 44-45, 72-73. 45-Ba¦r al-‘ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, p. 148. 46-Ibn ‘Arab¢, Ras¡’il, p. 11. 47-Khw¡ns¡r¢, Shar¦ ghurar al-¦ikam, vol. VI, p. 3 ¦ad¢th # 10471. 48-Ibn ‘Arab¢, Ras¡’il, p. 15-6.49-Ba¦r al-‘ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, p. 150.
50-ªmid¢, Ghurar al-¦ikam, vol. VI, p. 163 and 166 ¦ad¢th # 9918 and 9942. 51-Kulayn¢, al-K¡f¢, vol. II, p. 225; Majlis¢, Bi¦¡r, vol. XV, p. 140; cf. Ba¦r al’ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, p. 161. 52-Ba¦r al-‘ul£m, Sayr va sul£k, p. 151-53. 53-Ibn ‘Arab¢, Ras¡’il, p. 13-14; ªmid¢, Ghurar al-¦ikam, vol. VI, p. 124 ¦ad¢th # 9758.